Ancience India Chapter 21: Spread of Civilization in Eastern India

Ancience India Chapter 21: Spread of Civilization in Eastern India

Chapter 21: Spread of Civilization in Eastern India

Study Notes — Signs of Civilization

What are the essential signs of a civilized region?	Writing, taxation, law and order, social classes, specialists, surplus production.
Which specialists were required in a civilized society?	Priestly, administrative and productive specialists.
Who were the actual producers?	Artisans and peasants.
Who were the non-producing consumers?	People not engaged in production.
Until when were written records practically absent in large parts of eastern India?	Middle of the 4th century AD.
Which eastern regions had few written records before the mid-4th century AD?	Eastern Madhya Pradesh, adjoining Orissa, West Bengal, Bangladesh and Assam.
Which period marked the spread of advanced rural economy and state systems in eastern India?	4th–7th centuries AD.
Which regions experienced the formation of states and delineation of social classes?	Eastern Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, eastern and south-eastern Bengal, Assam.
What evidence indicates the spread of civilization during Gupta times?	Numerous inscriptions.
What was the usual form of Gupta-era inscriptions in these regions?	Land grants.
Who made many of these land grants?	Feudatory princes and others.
For what purposes were lands granted?	Religious purposes.
Which religious groups and institutions received land grants?	Buddhists, Brahmanas and Vaishnavite temples.
How did beneficiaries of land grants contribute to advanced culture?	By spreading and strengthening cultural elements.

Study Notes — Orissa and Eastern and Southern Madhya Pradesh

What was coastal Orissa south of the Mahanadi called?	Kalinga.
Under which ruler did Kalinga gain prominence?	Ashoka.
When was a strong state founded in Kalinga?	1st century BC.
Who was the ruler of Kalinga in the 1st century BC?	Kharavela.
How far did Kharavela advance?	Magadha.
Which centuries witnessed brisk trade through Orissan ports?	1st–2nd centuries AD.
Which commodities were traded through Orissan ports?	Pearls, ivory and muslin.
Which archaeological site was the capital of Kharavela?	Kalinganagari at Sisupalgarh.
Approximately how far is Sisupalgarh from Bhubaneswar?	60 km.
What did excavations at Sisupalgarh reveal about trade?	Roman objects indicating contacts with the Roman Empire.
Which part of Orissa experienced relatively little state formation and commercial activity?	Much of Orissa, particularly northern Orissa.
Which regions appear in Samudragupta's conquests in the 4th century?	Kosala and Mahakantara.
Which parts of Orissa were covered by Kosala and Mahakantara?	Parts of northern and western Orissa.
When were several states formed in Orissa?	Second half of the 4th to 6th century AD.
How many Orissan states can be clearly identified in this period?	At least five.
Which was the most important Orissan state mentioned in the chapter?	Mathara state.
What was another name for the Matharas?	Pitribhaktas.
Which territory did the Matharas dominate at their peak?	Between the Mahanadi and Krishna rivers.
Which states were contemporaries and neighbours of the Matharas?	Vasisthas, Nalas and Manas.
Where did the Vasisthas rule?	South Kalinga, on the borders of Andhra.
Where did the Nalas rule?	Mahakantara forest region.
Where did the Manas rule?	Northern coastal area beyond the Mahanadi.
What institutions did each Orissan kingdom develop?	Taxation, administration and military organization.
Which states developed coinage systems?	Nalas and probably Manas.
How did Orissan kings support Brahmanas?	Land grants and invitations from outside.
Why did kings perform Vedic sacrifices?	Spiritual merit, power, prestige and legitimacy.
Where did advanced culture spread beyond coastal Kalinga?	Other parts of Orissa.
What was significant about Nala gold coins found in tribal Bastar?	Evidence of an economy using gold money for large transactions and payments to high officials.
What did the possible Manas copper coins suggest?	Metallic money was used even by artisans and peasants.
How did Orissan states increase their income?	Creating new rural fiscal units.
Which district did the Matharas create in the Mahendra mountain region?	Mahendrabhoga.
What was the Mathara district called Dantayavagubhoga apparently intended to supply?	Ivory and rice-gruel for administrators.
What were agraharas under the Matharas?	Land and village income endowments for Brahmanical religious and educational activities.
Were all agraharas tax-free?	No. Some Mathara agraharas paid taxes.
How did Brahmanical land grants transform tribal, forest and red-soil areas?	Expanded cultivation and introduced improved agricultural methods.
How was the year divided before the Mathara period described in the chapter?	Three four-month units, based on three seasons.
What calendar practice began under the Matharas in the mid-5th century?	Division into twelve lunar months.
What did the twelve-lunar-month system imply?	Detailed knowledge of weather useful for agriculture.
Since when was writing known in coastal Orissa?	3rd century BC.
Which language was used in Orissan inscriptions until the mid-4th century AD?	Prakrit.
When did Sanskrit begin to be used in Orissa?	Around AD 350.
Where did Sanskrit charters spread beyond the coastal belt?	Areas north of the Mahanadi.
What was the cultural significance of Sanskrit in eastern India?	Vehicle of Brahmanical religion, culture, property laws and social regulations.
Which texts were quoted in Sanskrit land charters?	Puranas and Dharmashastras.
What did kings claim regarding the varna system?	They were its preservers.
Which cultural region's influence was emphasized in Orissa?	Gangetic basin.
Which river confluence was considered holy for a dip?	Ganga–Yamuna confluence at Prayag.
Which sacred place did victorious kings visit?	Prayag.

Study Notes — Bengal

Which part of north Bengal provides evidence of writing in Ashoka's time?	Area now in Bogra district.
What did the north Bengal inscription describe?	Settlements maintaining a storehouse of coins and foodgrains for Buddhist monks.
What did the storehouse indicate about local peasants?	They could spare produce for taxes and gifts.
Which language did people of this north Bengal area know?	Prakrit.
Which religion did people of this north Bengal area profess?	Buddhism.
Where was an inscription found that proves early writing in south-east Bengal?	Noakhali coastal district.
Which language and script were known in Noakhali in the 2nd century BC?	Prakrit and Brahmi.
Until when is there little information about much of Bengal?	Until the 4th century AD.
Where did a king titled maharaja rule around the mid-4th century AD?	Pokharna on the Damodara, in Bankura district.
Which language did the king of Pokharna know?	Sanskrit.
Which deity did the king of Pokharna worship?	Vishnu.
What might the king of Pokharna have granted to Vishnu?	A village.
When did the area between the Ganga and Brahmaputra become settled and fairly Sanskrit-educated?	5th–6th centuries AD.
What present-day country covers much of the area between the Ganga and Brahmaputra discussed here?	Bangladesh.
When did Gupta governors apparently become independent?	After about AD 550.
Which area did these former Gupta governors occupy?	North Bengal.
Who may have seized part of north Bengal?	Rulers of Kamarupa.
Who were the local vassal princes known as samanta maharajas?	Local subordinate rulers who developed their own administration and military organization.
Which forces did Bengal's samanta maharajas maintain?	Horses, elephants, foot soldiers and boats.
Why did local princes maintain armies and boats?	To fight rivals and collect taxes from local peasants.
By AD 600, what was the area known as?	Gauda.
Who ruled the independent state of Gauda around AD 600?	Sasanka.
Who was Sasanka's adversary?	Harsha.
Which region was covered by Pundravardhanabhukti?	Almost all of north Bengal, largely in present-day Bangladesh.
From which year do a series of copper-plate land-sale documents survive for a century in Pundravardhanabhukti?	AD 432–433 onward.
Which coins were used to purchase land in many Pundravardhanabhukti documents?	Gold dinaras.
What was the tax status of land granted for religious purposes?	Donees were exempt from taxes.
Which groups participated in local administration and land transactions?	Scribes, merchants, artisans and landed classes.
Who staffed the administration of Pundravardhanabhukti?	Governors appointed by Gupta emperors.
What do land-sale documents reveal about Bengal?	Social groups, local officials and agricultural expansion.
How was land for many religious endowments described?	Fallow and uncultivated.
Why was this fallow land untaxed?	It was not under cultivation.
What was the effect of religious land grants on fallow land?	They promoted cultivation and settlement.
What was the deltaic region formed by the Brahmaputra called?	Samatata.
Which part of Bengal did Samatata cover?	South-east Bengal.
Whose authority did Samatata acknowledge?	Samudragupta's.
Why may Samatata have attracted Samudragupta's attention?	Part of it may have been populated and important.
How did Samatata differ culturally from north Bengal in the period described?	It may not have been ruled by Brahmanized princes and did not adopt Sanskrit or the varna system.
When did Samatata and part of Vanga develop a fairly organized state?	From about AD 525.
Where was Vanga in relation to Samatata?	On its western boundary.
Which coins did this state issue in the second half of the 6th century?	Gold coins.
Which state emerged in the Dacca area in the 7th century?	Khadga state.
What does the name Khadga literally mean?	Swordsmen.
Which other ruling houses are mentioned in the Comilla area?	Lokanatha, a Brahmana feudatory, and the Ratas.
What did the princes of south-east and central Bengal issue in the 6th–7th centuries?	Land grants.
Which institution did these Bengal princes create, like the Orissan kings?	Agraharas.
What do Bengal's land charters indicate about Sanskrit?	Its cultivation and use of sophisticated poetic metres by the second half of the 7th century.
What else do Bengal's land charters attest?	Expansion of cultivation and rural settlements.
Which fiscal and administrative unit was formed on the Bengal–Orissa border?	Dandabhukti.
What does danda mean?	Punishment.
What does bhukti mean in the chapter's explanation?	Enjoyment.
What was the apparent purpose of Dandabhukti?	Taming and punishing tribal inhabitants.
What cultural role may Dandabhukti have played?	Promoted Sanskrit and other cultural elements in tribal areas.
Which other Bengal administrative unit is mentioned in the 7th century?	Vardhamanabhukti, associated with Burdwan.
What was the condition of five plots granted to a Buddhist monastery in Faridpur?	Waste and waterlogged; tax-free.
How many Brahmanas received a large forest tract in Comilla?	200.
What wildlife was described in the Comilla forest tract?	Deer, boars, buffaloes, tigers and serpents.
What did such land grants demonstrate?	Colonization and civilization advanced into new areas.
Which two centuries were particularly important in Bengal's history?	Two centuries from about the mid-5th century.
How many states formed in Bengal during this period?	About half a dozen.
What kinds of states emerged in Bengal?	Large and small, independent and feudatory.
What did each Bengal state maintain for its army?	A victory or military camp with infantry, cavalry, elephants and boats.
How did Bengal's rulers maintain professional armies?	Regular taxes collected from rural communities.
How did Bengal's states expand their territories?	War and land grants to Buddhists and Brahmanas.
What office was eventually created to manage numerous endowments?	Agrahara officer, or agrahaiika.
What did land gifts create besides rural expansion?	New rights in land.
Who generally possessed land?	Individual families.
Who controlled the sale and purchase of land locally?	Local communities dominated by artisans, merchants, landowners and scribes.
How did these local groups assist the state?	Helped the king's local agents.
Were ordinary cultivators consulted in village land sales?	Yes.
Who may originally have possessed the right to grant land?	The tribe or community.
Why did communities retain a say in individual land gifts?	Earlier communal ownership and authority persisted.
What services did priests and princes traditionally provide in the proposed earlier arrangement?	Priests: religious services; princes: military and political services.
What did kings later acquire from communities?	A substantial share of land and greater land-granting rights.
What land-related rights did kings possess?	Tax revenue and rights over waste and fallow land.
Which language was known to administrative functionaries in these states?	Sanskrit, the official language.
Which religious-legal texts were administrative functionaries familiar with?	Puranas and Dharmashastras.
Why was this period significant for Bengal?	Advancing civilization, state formation, land rights and rural expansion.

Study Notes — Assam

What was Kamarupa geographically identified with?	Brahmaputra basin, running east to west.
When did Kamarupa become prominent?	7th century AD.
What do excavations at Ambari near Gauhati reveal?	Settlements existed from the 4th century AD.
From whom did Samudragupta receive tribute in the 4th century?	Davaka and Kamarupa.
Which present-day district may Davaka have covered?	Part of Nowgong district.
Which area did Kamarupa cover?	Brahmaputra basin.
Who may have ruled Davaka and Kamarupa when they submitted to Samudragupta?	Chiefs living on tribute collected from tribal peasants.
When were settlements at Ambari fairly developed?	6th–7th centuries AD.
By the beginning of which century were Sanskrit and writing clearly evident in Assam?	6th century AD.
Which title did the Kamarupa kings adopt?	Varman.
In which other regions was the title Varman used?	Northern, central and western India; Bengal, Orissa, Andhra, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
How did Kamarupa kings strengthen their position?	Land grants to Brahmanas.
Who emerged as head of a major Kamarupa state in the 7th century?	Bhaskaravarman.
Which area did Bhaskaravarman's state control?	A large part of the Brahmaputra basin and areas beyond.
Which religion also gained a foothold in Kamarupa?	Buddhism.
Which Chinese traveller visited Kamarupa?	Hsuan Tsang (Hieun Tsang).

Study Notes — The Formative Phase

What was the formative phase of civilization in eastern India?	4th–7th centuries AD.
Which regions participated in the formative phase?	Eastern Madhya Pradesh, northern Orissa, West Bengal, much of Bangladesh and Assam.
Which cultural and political elements spread during the formative phase?	Writing, Sanskrit learning, Vedic rituals, Brahmanical social classes and state systems.
What stimulated the spread of civilization in eastern India?	Cultural contacts with the Gupta Empire.
Which areas came directly under Gupta rule?	North Bengal and north-western Orissa.
How can Gupta association be inferred in other areas?	Use of the Gupta era in inscriptions.
Who formed new states in Bengal?	Feudatories.
Which forces did Bengal's feudatories maintain in military camps?	Elephants, horses, boats and other military forces.
How did Bengal's feudatories finance professional armies?	Regular taxation of rural communities.
What became clearly visible for the first time on a large scale in the 5th–6th centuries?	Writing, Sanskrit, varna society and Buddhism and Brahmanism.
Which Brahmanical traditions expanded in eastern India?	Shaivism and Vaishnavism.
What evidence indicates changing land ownership?	Remnants of communal authority alongside private property in land.
Which currency facilitated land purchases?	Gold coins.
What kind of economy did these developments presuppose?	Advanced food-producing economy.
Which agricultural techniques supported the economy?	Iron-ploughshare agriculture and wet paddy cultivation.
What other economic activity complemented agriculture?	Various crafts.
Which literary figure referred to transplantation of paddy seedlings in Vanga?	Kalidasa.
Was the origin of paddy-seedling transplantation in Vanga certain?	No; it may have been indigenous or introduced from Magadha.
Which crop was of good quality in north Bengal?	Sugarcane.
What did sufficient agricultural production make possible?	Support for people and government and widespread rural settlement.
What limitation exists in reconstructing the political history of eastern India?	A connected narrative of princes, dynasties and feudatories cannot be prepared.
What historical development is nevertheless certain?	Cultural evolution and the spread of civilization into outlying eastern provinces.
What coincided with the decline and fall of the Gupta Empire?	Progress in outlying regions.
Which previously obscure areas entered the historical record?	Thinly settled regions possibly ruled by tribal chiefs.
Which red-soil areas experienced this transformation?	West Bengal, north Orissa and adjoining Madhya Pradesh.
Which plateau included these difficult-to-cultivate red-soil areas?	Chotanagpur plateau.
Which other environments experienced the spread of civilization?	Jungle areas with alluvial soil and heavy rainfall in Bangladesh and the Brahmaputra basin.

MCQs — Signs of Civilization

1 Which of the following are signs of a civilized region according to the chapter?

1. Knowledge of writing
2. A system of taxation and maintenance of order
3. Social classes and specialized functions
4. All of the above

1. Knowledge of writing ❌
2. A system of taxation and maintenance of order ❌
3. Social classes and specialized functions ❌
4. All of the above ✅ Civilization also required sufficient production to support producers and non-producing consumers.

2 Who were the actual producers in a civilized society as described in the chapter?

1. Only priests
2. Artisans and peasants
3. Only administrators
4. Only kings

1. Only priests ❌
2. Artisans and peasants ✅ They produced the goods and agricultural surplus that sustained society.
3. Only administrators ❌
4. Only kings ❌

3 Until approximately when were written records practically absent across large portions of eastern India?

1. Middle of the 2nd century BC
2. Middle of the 1st century AD
3. Middle of the 4th century AD
4. Middle of the 8th century AD

1. Middle of the 2nd century BC ❌
2. Middle of the 1st century AD ❌
3. Middle of the 4th century AD ✅ The chapter identifies this as the approximate turning point for the appearance of written records in many eastern regions.
4. Middle of the 8th century AD ❌

4 The formative spread of advanced rural economy and state systems in eastern India mainly occurred during which period?

1. 1st–3rd centuries AD
2. 4th–7th centuries AD
3. 8th–10th centuries AD
4. 11th–13th centuries AD

1. 1st–3rd centuries AD ❌
2. 4th–7th centuries AD ✅ The period saw state formation, social differentiation and the spread of advanced rural economy.
3. 8th–10th centuries AD ❌
4. 11th–13th centuries AD ❌

5 Gupta-era inscriptions in eastern India were generally associated with which activity?

1. Land grants for religious purposes
2. Maritime laws only
3. Descriptions of Roman emperors only
4. Military recruitment alone

1. Land grants for religious purposes ✅ Beneficiaries included Buddhists, Brahmanas and Vaishnavite temples.
2. Maritime laws only ❌
3. Descriptions of Roman emperors only ❌
4. Military recruitment alone ❌

MCQs — Orissa and Eastern and Southern Madhya Pradesh

6 Kalinga, as described in the chapter, referred to coastal Orissa situated south of which river?

1. Godavari
2. Mahanadi
3. Krishna
4. Ganga

1. Godavari ❌
2. Mahanadi ✅ The chapter identifies coastal Orissa south of the Mahanadi as Kalinga.
3. Krishna ❌
4. Ganga ❌

7 Which ruler made Kalinga prominent before a strong state was established there in the 1st century BC?

1. Ashoka
2. Samudragupta
3. Harsha
4. Bhaskaravarman

1. Ashoka ✅ Kalinga gained prominence under Ashoka, while a strong state emerged in the 1st century BC.
2. Samudragupta ❌
3. Harsha ❌
4. Bhaskaravarman ❌

8 Who was the ruler of Kalinga who advanced as far as Magadha?

1. Kharavela
2. Mathara
3. Sasanka
4. Vasistha

1. Kharavela ✅ The chapter associates Kharavela with the strong Kalingan state of the 1st century BC.
2. Mathara ❌
3. Sasanka ❌
4. Vasistha ❌

9 Which commodities were traded briskly through Orissan ports during the 1st and 2nd centuries AD?

1. Pearls, ivory and muslin
2. Tea, coal and petroleum
3. Silk, paper and porcelain only
4. Wheat, iron ore and tobacco

1. Pearls, ivory and muslin ✅ These are the commodities specifically listed in the chapter.
2. Tea, coal and petroleum ❌
3. Silk, paper and porcelain only ❌
4. Wheat, iron ore and tobacco ❌

10 Excavations at Sisupalgarh yielded Roman objects indicating trade contacts with which empire?

1. Mauryan Empire
2. Roman Empire
3. Gupta Empire only
4. Han Empire

1. Mauryan Empire ❌
2. Roman Empire ✅ Sisupalgarh is identified with Kalinganagari, the capital of Kharavela.
3. Gupta Empire only ❌
4. Han Empire ❌

11 Which regions appear among Samudragupta's conquests in the 4th century AD?

1. Kosala and Mahakantara
2. Magadha and Prayag only
3. Samatata and Vanga only
4. Davaka and Kamarupa only

1. Kosala and Mahakantara ✅ They covered parts of northern and western Orissa.
2. Magadha and Prayag only ❌
3. Samatata and Vanga only ❌
4. Davaka and Kamarupa only ❌

12 When were several states formed in Orissa, including the Mathara state?

1. 1st century BC only
2. Second half of the 4th century to the 6th century AD
3. 8th–10th centuries AD
4. 12th–13th centuries AD

1. 1st century BC only ❌
2. Second half of the 4th century to the 6th century AD ✅ The chapter identifies at least five states in this period.
3. 8th–10th centuries AD ❌
4. 12th–13th centuries AD ❌

13 The Matharas were also known as which group?

1. Pitribhaktas
2. Khadgas
3. Ratas
4. Samantas

1. Pitribhaktas ✅ The Matharas were the most important of the Orissan states described.
2. Khadgas ❌
3. Ratas ❌
4. Samantas ❌

14 At the height of their power, the Matharas dominated the territory between which rivers?

1. Ganga and Yamuna
2. Mahanadi and Krishna
3. Godavari and Kaveri
4. Brahmaputra and Ganga

1. Ganga and Yamuna ❌
2. Mahanadi and Krishna ✅ This was the extent of Mathara dominance stated in the chapter.
3. Godavari and Kaveri ❌
4. Brahmaputra and Ganga ❌

15 Which pairing of Orissan states and their territories is correct?

1. Vasisthas — Mahakantara forest
2. Nalas — south Kalinga on Andhra's border
3. Manas — coastal area north of the Mahanadi
4. Matharas — Dacca area only

1. Vasisthas — Mahakantara forest ❌ Mahakantara was ruled by the Nalas.
2. Nalas — south Kalinga on Andhra's border ❌ South Kalinga was ruled by the Vasisthas.
3. Manas — coastal area north of the Mahanadi ✅ This is the correct territorial association.
4. Matharas — Dacca area only ❌ The Matharas dominated between the Mahanadi and Krishna.

16 Which states are specifically credited with developing coinage systems?

1. Only the Vasisthas
2. The Nalas and probably the Manas
3. Only the Matharas
4. Only the Khadgas

1. Only the Vasisthas ❌
2. The Nalas and probably the Manas ✅ The Nalas used gold coins; the Manas apparently issued copper coins.
3. Only the Matharas ❌
4. Only the Khadgas ❌

17 Why did kings perform Vedic sacrifices according to the chapter?

1. Only to promote maritime trade
2. For spiritual merit, power, prestige and legitimacy
3. Only to eliminate coinage
4. Only to avoid collecting taxes

1. Only to promote maritime trade ❌
2. For spiritual merit, power, prestige and legitimacy ✅ Sacrifices had both religious and political significance.
3. Only to eliminate coinage ❌
4. Only to avoid collecting taxes ❌

18 The discovery of Nala gold coins in tribal Bastar most directly suggests which economic development?

1. Complete absence of commercial exchange
2. Use of gold money in large transactions and payments to high officials
3. Exclusive reliance on barter in all transactions
4. Use of paper currency

1. Complete absence of commercial exchange ❌
2. Use of gold money in large transactions and payments to high officials ✅ The coin finds imply a developed monetary economy.
3. Exclusive reliance on barter in all transactions ❌
4. Use of paper currency ❌

19 What does the apparent issue of copper coins by the Manas suggest?

1. Metallic money may have been used by artisans and peasants
2. Only gold was used in all transactions
3. Agriculture had disappeared
4. The Manas had no fiscal system

1. Metallic money may have been used by artisans and peasants ✅ Copper coinage implies wider monetary use beyond large transactions.
2. Only gold was used in all transactions ❌
3. Agriculture had disappeared ❌
4. The Manas had no fiscal system ❌

20 Which Mathara district was associated with the Mahendra mountains?

1. Dandabhukti
2. Mahendrabhoga
3. Pundravardhanabhukti
4. Vardhamanabhukti

1. Dandabhukti ❌
2. Mahendrabhoga ✅ The Matharas created this district in the Mahendra mountain area.
3. Pundravardhanabhukti ❌
4. Vardhamanabhukti ❌

21 What did Dantayavagubhoga apparently supply to its administrators?

1. Tea and petroleum
2. Ivory and rice-gruel
3. Gold and silk exclusively
4. Horses and weapons exclusively

1. Tea and petroleum ❌
2. Ivory and rice-gruel ✅ The chapter suggests the district was created in a relatively backward area to supply these items.
3. Gold and silk exclusively ❌
4. Horses and weapons exclusively ❌

22 What were agraharas intended to support?

1. Only military camps
2. Religious and educational activities of Brahmanas
3. Only foreign trade
4. Only royal hunting grounds

1. Only military camps ❌
2. Religious and educational activities of Brahmanas ✅ Agraharas comprised land and income from villages.
3. Only foreign trade ❌
4. Only royal hunting grounds ❌

23 Which statement about Mathara agraharas is correct?

1. Every agrahara was necessarily tax-free
2. Some agraharas paid taxes
3. Agraharas never involved village income
4. Agraharas were exclusively military units

1. Every agrahara was necessarily tax-free ❌
2. Some agraharas paid taxes ✅ The chapter contrasts these with tax-free agraharas elsewhere in the country.
3. Agraharas never involved village income ❌
4. Agraharas were exclusively military units ❌

24 What agricultural change was associated with Brahmanical land grants in tribal and forest areas?

1. Abandonment of cultivation
2. Expansion of cultivated land and improved agricultural methods
3. End of rural settlement
4. Exclusive dependence on imported food

1. Abandonment of cultivation ❌
2. Expansion of cultivated land and improved agricultural methods ✅ Land grants brought new areas under cultivation and encouraged better knowledge of weather conditions.
3. End of rural settlement ❌
4. Exclusive dependence on imported food ❌

25 What calendar practice began under the Matharas in the middle of the 5th century?

1. Division of the year into twelve lunar months
2. Division of the year into ten weeks
3. Abandonment of seasonal reckoning for all purposes
4. Introduction of a seven-year calendar

1. Division of the year into twelve lunar months ✅ The practice reflected more detailed knowledge of weather and agricultural timing.
2. Division of the year into ten weeks ❌
3. Abandonment of seasonal reckoning for all purposes ❌
4. Introduction of a seven-year calendar ❌

26 Which language was used in coastal Orissan inscriptions before Sanskrit became common around AD 350?

1. Persian
2. Prakrit
3. Tamil
4. Arabic

1. Persian ❌
2. Prakrit ✅ Writing was known in coastal Orissa from the 3rd century BC, and inscriptions remained in Prakrit until the mid-4th century AD.
3. Tamil ❌
4. Arabic ❌

27 Which texts were quoted in Sanskrit charters in eastern India?

1. Puranas and Dharmashastras
2. Only Buddhist travel diaries
3. Only Roman legal codes
4. Only Sangam poems

1. Puranas and Dharmashastras ✅ Their quotations helped convey Brahmanical norms, property laws and social regulations.
2. Only Buddhist travel diaries ❌
3. Only Roman legal codes ❌
4. Only Sangam poems ❌

MCQs — Bengal

28 Which present-day district area in north Bengal provides evidence of writing in Ashoka's time?

1. Bogra
2. Comilla
3. Dacca
4. Faridpur

1. Bogra ✅ The inscription described settlements with a storehouse of coins and foodgrains for Buddhist monks.
2. Comilla ❌
3. Dacca ❌
4. Faridpur ❌

29 The storehouse mentioned in the north Bengal inscription supported which group?

1. Roman merchants
2. Buddhist monks
3. Gupta cavalry alone
4. Foreign sailors alone

1. Roman merchants ❌
2. Buddhist monks ✅ Coins and foodgrains were stored for their upkeep.
3. Gupta cavalry alone ❌
4. Foreign sailors alone ❌

30 Which language and script were known in the Noakhali coastal area in the 2nd century BC?

1. Sanskrit and Devanagari
2. Prakrit and Brahmi
3. Persian and Arabic
4. Tamil and Grantha

1. Sanskrit and Devanagari ❌
2. Prakrit and Brahmi ✅ The inscription from south-east Bengal attests to their use in that area.
3. Persian and Arabic ❌
4. Tamil and Grantha ❌

31 Which statement about the king of Pokharna around the middle of the 4th century AD is correct?

1. He was titled maharaja, knew Sanskrit and worshipped Vishnu
2. He was a Buddhist monk who ruled Kamarupa
3. He ruled Gauda under Harsha
4. He issued the first paper currency in Bengal

1. He was titled maharaja, knew Sanskrit and worshipped Vishnu ✅ He ruled at Pokharna on the Damodara in Bankura district.
2. He was a Buddhist monk who ruled Kamarupa ❌
3. He ruled Gauda under Harsha ❌
4. He issued the first paper currency in Bengal ❌

32 After about AD 550, what happened to the Gupta governors in Bengal?

1. They apparently became independent and occupied north Bengal
2. They all moved to south India
3. They abolished all taxation
4. They transferred the region to the Roman Empire

1. They apparently became independent and occupied north Bengal ✅ The chapter notes that some territory may have been seized by Kamarupa rulers.
2. They all moved to south India ❌
3. They abolished all taxation ❌
4. They transferred the region to the Roman Empire ❌

33 What military resources did Bengal's samanta maharajas maintain?

1. Horses, elephants, foot soldiers and boats
2. Only war chariots
3. Only cavalry
4. Only a naval fleet without land forces

1. Horses, elephants, foot soldiers and boats ✅ These forces helped them fight rivals and collect taxes.
2. Only war chariots ❌
3. Only cavalry ❌
4. Only a naval fleet without land forces ❌

34 By approximately AD 600, which independent state was established in Bengal under Sasanka?

1. Samatata
2. Gauda
3. Kamarupa
4. Mahakantara

1. Samatata ❌
2. Gauda ✅ Sasanka ruled Gauda and was an adversary of Harsha.
3. Kamarupa ❌
4. Mahakantara ❌

35 Which region was covered by Pundravardhanabhukti?

1. Almost the whole of north Bengal
2. Only coastal Orissa
3. Only the Dacca area
4. Only the Brahmaputra delta

1. Almost the whole of north Bengal ✅ Much of the area is now in Bangladesh.
2. Only coastal Orissa ❌
3. Only the Dacca area ❌
4. Only the Brahmaputra delta ❌

36 Which coins were commonly used to purchase land in Pundravardhanabhukti?

1. Gold dinaras
2. Copper tokens only
3. Paper notes
4. Roman silver denarii exclusively

1. Gold dinaras ✅ The copper-plate documents show monetized land transactions.
2. Copper tokens only ❌
3. Paper notes ❌
4. Roman silver denarii exclusively ❌

37 What was the tax status of land given for religious purposes in the documented transactions?

1. The donees were exempt from taxes
2. The donees always paid double taxes
3. The land was always classified as royal forest
4. The land could never be cultivated

1. The donees were exempt from taxes ✅ Religious endowments were tax-exempt in the transactions described.
2. The donees always paid double taxes ❌
3. The land was always classified as royal forest ❌
4. The land could never be cultivated ❌

38 Which groups were involved in local administration and land transactions in Bengal?

1. Scribes, merchants, artisans and landed classes
2. Only foreign ambassadors
3. Only Buddhist monks
4. Only royal soldiers

1. Scribes, merchants, artisans and landed classes ✅ The documents illuminate local social groups and administrative functionaries.
2. Only foreign ambassadors ❌
3. Only Buddhist monks ❌
4. Only royal soldiers ❌

39 What was the usual condition of land purchased for many religious endowments in Bengal?

1. Already densely urbanized
2. Fallow and uncultivated
3. Covered entirely by temples
4. Always irrigated and tax-paying

1. Already densely urbanized ❌
2. Fallow and uncultivated ✅ Such land was untaxed before cultivation, and grants encouraged its settlement.
3. Covered entirely by temples ❌
4. Always irrigated and tax-paying ❌

40 Which deltaic region of south-east Bengal acknowledged Samudragupta's authority?

1. Samatata
2. Gauda
3. Mahendrabhoga
4. Dandabhukti

1. Samatata ✅ The region was formed by the Brahmaputra delta.
2. Gauda ❌
3. Mahendrabhoga ❌
4. Dandabhukti ❌

41 From about AD 525, which region developed a fairly organized state covering itself and part of Vanga?

1. Samatata
2. Mahakantara
3. Coastal Kalinga alone
4. Pokharna alone

1. Samatata ✅ The state covered Samatata and part of Vanga along its western boundary and issued gold coins in the second half of the 6th century.
2. Mahakantara ❌
3. Coastal Kalinga alone ❌
4. Pokharna alone ❌

42 Which state appeared in the Dacca area during the 7th century?

1. Khadga state
2. Mathara state
3. Nala state
4. Vasistha state

1. Khadga state ✅ Khadga literally means swordsmen.
2. Mathara state ❌
3. Nala state ❌
4. Vasistha state ❌

43 Which ruling houses are associated with the Comilla area?

1. Lokanatha and the Ratas
2. Matharas and Nalas
3. Vasisthas and Manas
4. Only the Guptas

1. Lokanatha and the Ratas ✅ Lokanatha is described as a Brahmana feudatory.
2. Matharas and Nalas ❌
3. Vasisthas and Manas ❌
4. Only the Guptas ❌

44 Which administrative unit was created in the border areas between Bengal and Orissa?

1. Dandabhukti
2. Pundravardhanabhukti
3. Mahendrabhoga
4. Samatata

1. Dandabhukti ✅ It was apparently formed to control and punish tribal inhabitants and may have spread Sanskrit culture.
2. Pundravardhanabhukti ❌
3. Mahendrabhoga ❌
4. Samatata ❌

45 Which administrative unit is associated with Burdwan in the 7th century?

1. Vardhamanabhukti
2. Dantayavagubhoga
3. Kamarupa
4. Mahakantara

1. Vardhamanabhukti ✅ The chapter records this unit in the 7th century.
2. Dantayavagubhoga ❌
3. Kamarupa ❌
4. Mahakantara ❌

46 How many Brahmanas received a large forest area in the Comilla district?

1. 50
2. 100
3. 200
4. 500

1. 50 ❌
2. 100 ❌
3. 200 ✅ The tract was described as a forest inhabited by deer, boars, buffaloes, tigers and serpents.
4. 500 ❌

47 What military resources did the Bengal states maintain in their military camps?

1. Infantry, cavalry, elephants and boats
2. Only elephants
3. Only chariots and archers
4. Only foreign mercenaries

1. Infantry, cavalry, elephants and boats ✅ The states used these forces in warfare and territorial expansion.
2. Only elephants ❌
3. Only chariots and archers ❌
4. Only foreign mercenaries ❌

48 Which officer was appointed when the number of land endowments increased considerably?

1. Agrahaiika
2. Senapati
3. Gramik only
4. Mahadandanayaka only

1. Agrahaiika ✅ The officer was responsible for looking after the numerous endowments.
2. Senapati ❌
3. Gramik only ❌
4. Mahadandanayaka only ❌

49 Which statement best describes land ownership and sale in early Bengal?

1. Communities had no role in land transactions
2. Families possessed land, but local communities retained influence over sales and purchases
3. All land was permanently owned by foreign merchants
4. Ordinary cultivators were never consulted

1. Communities had no role in land transactions ❌
2. Families possessed land, but local communities retained influence over sales and purchases ✅ Artisans, merchants, landowners, scribes and ordinary cultivators could participate in local decisions.
3. All land was permanently owned by foreign merchants ❌
4. Ordinary cultivators were never consulted ❌

50 Which rights did kings acquire or exercise over land according to the chapter?

1. Rights to taxes and rights over waste and fallow land
2. Only rights over cultivated temple land
3. No fiscal rights whatsoever
4. Only rights to collect foreign customs duties

1. Rights to taxes and rights over waste and fallow land ✅ These rights helped kings make land grants and expand cultivation.
2. Only rights over cultivated temple land ❌
3. No fiscal rights whatsoever ❌
4. Only rights to collect foreign customs duties ❌

MCQs — Assam

51 Kamarupa was geographically associated with which river basin?

1. Godavari basin
2. Brahmaputra basin
3. Narmada basin
4. Krishna basin

1. Godavari basin ❌
2. Brahmaputra basin ✅ The chapter describes it as running from east to west.
3. Narmada basin ❌
4. Krishna basin ❌

52 Excavations at Ambari near Gauhati indicate settlements from which century?

1. 1st century BC
2. 2nd century AD
3. 4th century AD
4. 8th century AD

1. 1st century BC ❌
2. 2nd century AD ❌
3. 4th century AD ✅ The settlements became fairly developed in the 6th and 7th centuries.
4. 8th century AD ❌

53 From which two regions did Samudragupta receive tribute in the 4th century AD?

1. Davaka and Kamarupa
2. Gauda and Samatata
3. Mahakantara and Kosala
4. Vanga and Dandabhukti

1. Davaka and Kamarupa ✅ Their rulers may have been chiefs who collected tribute from tribal peasants.
2. Gauda and Samatata ❌
3. Mahakantara and Kosala ❌
4. Vanga and Dandabhukti ❌

54 By the beginning of which century were writing and Sanskrit clearly in evidence in Assam?

1. 3rd century AD
2. 4th century AD
3. 6th century AD
4. 9th century AD

1. 3rd century AD ❌
2. 4th century AD ❌
3. 6th century AD ✅ This evidence accompanied the development of settlements in Kamarupa.
4. 9th century AD ❌

55 Which title was adopted by the kings of Kamarupa?

1. Varman
2. Khadga
3. Pitribhakta
4. Rata

1. Varman ✅ The title was also used in several other regions of the Indian subcontinent.
2. Khadga ❌
3. Pitribhakta ❌
4. Rata ❌

56 Who emerged as the head of a major Kamarupa state in the 7th century?

1. Kharavela
2. Bhaskaravarman
3. Sasanka
4. Samudragupta

1. Kharavela ❌
2. Bhaskaravarman ✅ His state controlled much of the Brahmaputra basin and some areas beyond it.
3. Sasanka ❌
4. Samudragupta ❌

57 Which Chinese traveller visited the state of Kamarupa?

1. Faxian
2. Xuanzang (Hsuan Tsang/Hieun Tsang)
3. Yijing only in the chapter's account
4. Megasthenes

1. Faxian ❌
2. Xuanzang (Hsuan Tsang/Hieun Tsang) ✅ The chapter also notes that Buddhism had gained a foothold in Kamarupa.
3. Yijing only in the chapter's account ❌
4. Megasthenes ❌

MCQs — The Formative Phase

58 Which of the following spread during the formative phase of eastern Indian civilization?

1. Writing and Sanskrit learning
2. Vedic rituals and Brahmanical social classes
3. State systems and religious traditions
4. All of the above

1. Writing and Sanskrit learning ❌
2. Vedic rituals and Brahmanical social classes ❌
3. State systems and religious traditions ❌
4. All of the above ✅ These developments took place across eastern Madhya Pradesh, northern Orissa, West Bengal, much of Bangladesh and Assam.

59 Which regions came directly under Gupta rule according to the chapter?

1. North Bengal and north-western Orissa
2. All of Assam and all of south-east Bengal
3. Only coastal Kalinga and Dacca
4. Only the Chotanagpur plateau

1. North Bengal and north-western Orissa ✅ In other areas, Gupta association can be inferred from the use of the Gupta era in inscriptions.
2. All of Assam and all of south-east Bengal ❌
3. Only coastal Kalinga and Dacca ❌
4. Only the Chotanagpur plateau ❌

60 What does the use of the Gupta era in inscriptions suggest about some eastern regions?

1. An association with the Gupta Empire
2. Complete isolation from northern India
3. Absence of administrative activity
4. Exclusive dependence on Roman government

1. An association with the Gupta Empire ✅ The chapter uses the era in inscriptions as evidence of Gupta connections.
2. Complete isolation from northern India ❌
3. Absence of administrative activity ❌
4. Exclusive dependence on Roman government ❌

61 Which forms of Brahmanical religion are specifically mentioned as spreading in eastern India?

1. Shaivism and Vaishnavism
2. Only Zoroastrianism
3. Only Jainism
4. Only Christianity

1. Shaivism and Vaishnavism ✅ They accompanied the spread of Sanskrit, varna society and Buddhism in the 5th and 6th centuries.
2. Only Zoroastrianism ❌
3. Only Jainism ❌
4. Only Christianity ❌

62 Which combination best describes the economic basis of civilization in eastern India?

1. Iron-ploughshare agriculture, wet paddy cultivation and crafts
2. Nomadic pastoralism alone
3. Maritime trade without agriculture
4. Hunting without settled communities

1. Iron-ploughshare agriculture, wet paddy cultivation and crafts ✅ These activities generated sufficient production to support people and government.
2. Nomadic pastoralism alone ❌
3. Maritime trade without agriculture ❌
4. Hunting without settled communities ❌

63 Who referred to the transplantation of paddy seedlings in Vanga?

1. Kalidasa
2. Xuanzang
3. Samudragupta
4. Ashoka

1. Kalidasa ✅ The chapter states that whether the practice was indigenous or came from Magadha is unknown.
2. Xuanzang ❌
3. Samudragupta ❌
4. Ashoka ❌

64 Which crop is specifically noted for its good quality in north Bengal?

1. Sugarcane
2. Coffee
3. Tea
4. Cotton only

1. Sugarcane ✅ Agricultural production, including this crop, supported people and government.
2. Coffee ❌
3. Tea ❌
4. Cotton only ❌

65 What coincided with the decline and fall of the Gupta Empire?

1. Considerable progress in outlying regions
2. The end of all settlement in eastern India
3. The disappearance of all tribal communities
4. The complete cessation of agriculture

1. Considerable progress in outlying regions ✅ Previously obscure areas entered the historical record as civilization and settlement advanced.
2. The end of all settlement in eastern India ❌
3. The disappearance of all tribal communities ❌
4. The complete cessation of agriculture ❌

66 Which geographical areas were particularly difficult to cultivate and settle?

1. Red-soil regions of West Bengal, north Orissa and adjoining Madhya Pradesh
2. Only the fertile Ganga–Yamuna confluence
3. Only coastal Gujarat
4. Only the Malabar coast

1. Red-soil regions of West Bengal, north Orissa and adjoining Madhya Pradesh ✅ These areas formed part of the Chotanagpur plateau.
2. Only the fertile Ganga–Yamuna confluence ❌
3. Only coastal Gujarat ❌
4. Only the Malabar coast ❌

67 Which other environments experienced the spread of civilization into previously obscure areas?

1. Jungle areas with alluvial soil and heavy rainfall in Bangladesh and the Brahmaputra basin
2. Only the Thar Desert
3. Only high-altitude Himalayan glaciers
4. Only the dry Deccan plateau

1. Jungle areas with alluvial soil and heavy rainfall in Bangladesh and the Brahmaputra basin ✅ These regions were among the outlying areas that experienced settlement and cultural development.
2. Only the Thar Desert ❌
3. Only high-altitude Himalayan glaciers ❌
4. Only the dry Deccan plateau ❌

MCQs — Integrated and Comprehensive Revision

68 Consider the following statements about land grants in eastern India:
1. They helped bring new lands under cultivation.
2. They supported religious and educational activities.
3. They always remained taxable in every region.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

1. 1 only
2. 1 and 2 only
3. 2 and 3 only
4. 1, 2 and 3

1. 1 only ❌
2. 1 and 2 only ✅ Grants expanded cultivation and supported religious and educational institutions. Tax treatment varied; some grants were tax-free while some Mathara agraharas paid taxes.
3. 2 and 3 only ❌
4. 1, 2 and 3 ❌

69 Consider the following statements about Sanskrit in eastern India:
1. It began to be used in Orissa around AD 350.
2. It served as a vehicle for religion, property laws and social regulations.
3. It was clearly in evidence in Assam by the beginning of the 6th century.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

1. 1 only
2. 1 and 2 only
3. 2 and 3 only
4. 1, 2 and 3

1. 1 only ❌
2. 1 and 2 only ❌
3. 2 and 3 only ❌
4. 1, 2 and 3 ✅ All three statements match the chapter's account of Sanskrit's spread.

70 Consider the following statements about the economic significance of land grants:
1. Gold coins were used in land purchases in Bengal.
2. Uncultivated land granted for religious endowments could be brought under cultivation.
3. Local communities had no influence over land sales.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

1. 1 only
2. 1 and 2 only
3. 2 and 3 only
4. 1, 2 and 3

1. 1 only ❌
2. 1 and 2 only ✅ Gold dinaras facilitated land purchases, and grants encouraged cultivation. Local communities retained influence over land transactions.
3. 2 and 3 only ❌
4. 1, 2 and 3 ❌

71 Which of the following pairs is incorrectly matched?

1. Mahendrabhoga — Mathara district
2. Dandabhukti — Bengal–Orissa border
3. Vardhamanabhukti — Burdwan
4. Pundravardhanabhukti — Dacca area only

1. Mahendrabhoga — Mathara district ❌ Correctly matched.
2. Dandabhukti — Bengal–Orissa border ❌ Correctly matched.
3. Vardhamanabhukti — Burdwan ❌ Correctly matched.
4. Pundravardhanabhukti — Dacca area only ✅ Incorrectly matched. Pundravardhanabhukti covered almost the whole of north Bengal.

72 Which of the following best explains how state formation advanced civilization in eastern India?

1. States developed taxation, administration, military organization and rural fiscal units
2. States eliminated every form of agriculture
3. States prevented the use of writing
4. States abolished all land grants

1. States developed taxation, administration, military organization and rural fiscal units ✅ These institutions supported political authority and helped extend settlement and cultivation.
2. States eliminated every form of agriculture ❌
3. States prevented the use of writing ❌
4. States abolished all land grants ❌

73 Consider the following statements about the formative phase:
1. It witnessed the expansion of writing and Sanskrit learning.
2. It included the development of varna society.
3. It was unrelated to agricultural production.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

1. 1 only
2. 1 and 2 only
3. 2 and 3 only
4. 1, 2 and 3

1. 1 only ❌
2. 1 and 2 only ✅ Writing, Sanskrit learning and varna society spread alongside an advanced food-producing economy.
3. 2 and 3 only ❌
4. 1, 2 and 3 ❌

74 Which statement about the decline of the Gupta Empire and eastern India is correct?

1. Outlying regions made considerable progress during the Gupta decline
2. All eastern states disappeared immediately
3. Writing vanished from all eastern regions
4. All tribal regions became uninhabited

1. Outlying regions made considerable progress during the Gupta decline ✅ Previously obscure areas became historically visible through state formation, cultivation and settlement.
2. All eastern states disappeared immediately ❌
3. Writing vanished from all eastern regions ❌
4. All tribal regions became uninhabited ❌